Nayanamritam Kuzhambu – Traditional Ayurvedic Eye Elixir for Vision Wellness

Nayanamritam Kuzhambu is a classical Ayurvedic ophthalmic preparation — a medicated collyrium (Kuzhambu) — used primarily for degenerative eye diseases such as optic atrophy, optic neuritis, early-stage cataracts, and glaucoma. Manufactured most notably by Kottakkal Arya Vaidya Sala, this formulation is applied as eye drops (1–2 drops per eye) under the guidance of an Ayurvedic physician. It combines a carefully calibrated blend of herbs, minerals, and honey to nourish the retina, strengthen the optic nerve, and restore clarity of vision. Unlike general-purpose eye drops, Nayanamritam Kuzhambu works on the deeper tissue layers (dhatus) of the eye, making it one of the most targeted Ayurvedic ophthalmic medicines available today.

If you've been searching for a comprehensive, evidence-informed guide on this formulation — covering everything from its classical source text to how it compares with Elaneer Kuzhambu or Triphala Ghritam — you're in the right place.

What Is Nayanamritam Kuzhambu?

Definition and Ayurvedic Classification

Nayanamritam Kuzhambu belongs to the Kuzhambu category of Ayurvedic preparations, which are semi-solid or liquid collyrium formulations designed exclusively for topical ocular application. The word "Nayanamritam" itself translates roughly to "nectar for the eyes" (Nayana = eyes; Amritam = nectar/immortality). In Ayurvedic pharmacology (Bhaishajya Kalpana), Kuzhambu preparations are classified under Kriyakalpa — specialized ophthalmic therapeutic procedures described in classical texts.

This formulation is categorized as a Chakshushya (vision-promoting) medicine that primarily balances Pitta and Kapha doshas in the eye region. According to Ayurvedic ophthalmology (Shalakya Tantra), most degenerative eye conditions arise from vitiated Pitta causing tissue inflammation and Kapha causing obstructive pathology in the ocular channels (srotas).

Classical Reference: Sahasrayogam

One of the major gaps in existing online resources is the failure to cite the actual classical source. Nayanamritam Kuzhambu is referenced in the Sahasrayogam, a compilation of over a thousand Ayurvedic formulations widely followed in the Kerala Ayurvedic tradition. Specifically, it appears in the Netra Rogadhikara (chapter on eye diseases) section of this text. The Sahasrayogam, believed to have been compiled between the 14th–17th centuries, draws on earlier authoritative works including Ashtanga Hridayam by Vagbhata and Sushruta Samhita, both of which extensively discuss Kriyakalpa procedures for the eyes.

The formulation in Sahasrayogam specifies the exact proportions of herbal ingredients and processing methods (including the critical role of honey as a vehicle and preservative). This classical anchoring is what differentiates authentic Nayanamritam Kuzhambu from modern proprietary blends.

Manufacturer — Kottakkal Arya Vaidya Sala

The most widely recognized manufacturer is Kottakkal Arya Vaidya Sala (AVS), established in 1902 in Malappuram, Kerala. AVS follows the exact classical formulation from Sahasrayogam and manufactures Nayanamritam Kuzhambu under GMP-certified conditions. Other reputable manufacturers include Vaidyaratnam Oushadhasala and SNA Oushadhasala, though minor differences in sourcing of raw materials and processing can exist between brands (discussed in more detail below).

Ingredients and Composition

Full Ingredient List

The formulation contains a complex blend of herbal extracts processed methodically. Here is the detailed composition based on the classical Sahasrayogam reference and available manufacturer data:

Note: Proportions vary slightly between manufacturers. The Kottakkal AVS version adheres strictly to classical ratios.

Role of Each Key Ingredient in Eye Health

What most resources miss is explaining why each ingredient matters for the eyes specifically — not just listing them.

Jyotishmati (Celastrus paniculatus) is arguably the star ingredient. Its Sanskrit name literally means "luminous," reflecting its traditional use for enhancing clarity — both mental and visual. Modern pharmacological studies have identified polyunsaturated fatty acids and sesquiterpenes in this plant that demonstrate neuroprotective activity. A 2014 study published in the Journal of Ethnopharmacology confirmed the antioxidant and neuroprotective potential of Celastrus paniculatus seed oil, which supports its traditional role in protecting the optic nerve from oxidative damage. Haridra (Curcumin from turmeric) has been extensively researched. A 2018 study in Scientific Reports demonstrated that curcumin formulations can reduce retinal ganglion cell loss — directly relevant to glaucoma and optic atrophy. The anti-inflammatory action of curcumin addresses the Pitta-driven inflammatory component of eye diseases. Daruharidra contains berberine, which has shown significant antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activity in ophthalmic research. A 2010 study in Molecular Vision reported that berberine inhibits retinal pigment epithelial cell apoptosis, suggesting potential in retinal degenerative conditions. Tuttha (purified copper sulphate) might raise eyebrows, but in Ayurveda, mineral ingredients undergo extensive Shodhana (purification) processes that convert them into biocompatible micro-doses. Purified copper compounds have documented antimicrobial properties and have been used in various traditional eye formulations across cultures.

The Role of Honey as a Base (Anupana)

• Honey serves multiple functions that are often overlooked. It acts as a natural preservative due to its low water activity and hydrogen peroxide content. As a vehicle, honey enhances the bioavailability of herbal actives by facilitating their absorption through the conjunctival membrane.
• In Ayurvedic pharmacology, honey is classified as Yogavahi — a substance that enhances the potency of whatever it's combined with. Additionally, honey itself has documented wound-healing and anti-inflammatory properties relevant to ocular tissues.

This is why Nayanamritam Kuzhambu has a characteristically thick, semi-liquid consistency and a slightly golden-brown colour.

Therapeutic Benefits and Indications

What Is Nayanamritam Kuzhambu Used For?

The primary indications, as documented in classical texts and clinical practice, include:

• Optic atrophy — progressive degeneration of the optic nerve fibers
• Optic neuritis — inflammation of the optic nerve
• Early-stage cataracts (Timira in Ayurveda) — lens opacification
• Glaucoma (Adhimantha) — elevated intraocular pressure with optic nerve damage
• Retinitis pigmentosa — progressive retinal degeneration
• Chronic conjunctivitis and eye infections
• Refractive errors — used as supportive therapy alongside corrective measures
• Computer vision syndrome / digital eye fatigue — an increasingly common modern application

How Does Nayanamritam Kuzhambu Support Eye Health?

The mechanism of action works on multiple levels simultaneously. First, the herbal actives penetrate the conjunctival and corneal barriers to nourish the retinal tissue and optic nerve. The anti-inflammatory compounds reduce subclinical inflammation in the uveal tract and retina. The antimicrobial ingredients maintain ocular surface hygiene and prevent secondary infections.

For glaucoma specifically, clinical observations by Ayurvedic practitioners suggest that regular application may help reduce intraocular pressure (IOP) by improving aqueous humor outflow through the trabecular meshwork. The Kapha-pacifying herbs help clear the obstructed fluid channels in the eye. However, it's crucial to note that glaucoma patients should never discontinue conventional IOP-lowering medications without medical supervision.

Dosha Balancing and Mechanism of Action

From the Ayurvedic perspective, Nayanamritam Kuzhambu works by:

• Pacifying Alochaka Pitta — the subdosha of Pitta governing vision
• Clearing Kapha obstructions in the Shringataka Marma (the vital point governing sensory functions in the head)
• Nourishing Majja Dhatu — the tissue layer that includes nervous tissue, directly relevant to optic nerve health
• Enhancing Tejas — the subtle essence of Pitta that governs visual perception

How to Use Nayanamritam Kuzhambu (Step-by-Step)

Recommended Dosage

• The standard dosage is 1–2 drops in each eye, typically administered once or twice daily as directed by an Ayurvedic physician. For chronic conditions like optic atrophy, treatment courses usually extend from 3 to 6 months, sometimes longer.
• This is a prescription medicine — self-medication is not recommended.

Step-by-Step Application Instructions

1. Wash your hands thoroughly with soap and water
2. Lie down on a flat surface with your face looking upward, or tilt your head back significantly if seated
3. Gently pull down the lower eyelid to create a small pocket
4. Instill 1–2 drops into the conjunctival sac (the pocket between the lower lid and eyeball)
5. Close your eyes gently — do not squeeze them shut
6. Rotate your eyes slowly in all directions (up, down, left, right, circular) for about 30 seconds. This helps distribute the medicine across the entire ocular surface
7. Keep eyes closed for 2–3 minutes to allow absorption
8. Gently blot any excess with a clean tissue

Best timing: Early morning (before sunrise, if possible) or before bedtime. The eye should be free from any other medication for at least 30 minutes before application.

What to Expect After Instillation

This is something most resources don't mention clearly enough — and it catches many first-time users off guard.

Mild to moderate burning or stinging is completely normal and usually lasts 30 seconds to 2 minutes. This is due to the bioactive compounds and the mild alkalinity of the formulation. If burning persists beyond 5 minutes or is accompanied by significant swelling, discontinue use and consult your physician. Temporary blurred vision lasting 10–15 minutes is expected due to the semi-viscous consistency of the formulation. Yellowish-brown staining may appear on the skin around the eyes due to turmeric and other pigmented herbs. This is harmless and can be gently cleaned after the absorption period. Some patients also notice slight yellowish discoloration of the tears immediately after application — this is also normal. Excessive tearing (lacrimation) occurs as a natural reflex in some individuals. It usually decreases over subsequent applications as the eyes adjust.

How Long Does It Take to See Results?

• For acute conditions like eye strain or mild conjunctivitis, patients may notice improvement within 1–2 weeks. For chronic degenerative conditions such as optic atrophy or cataracts, meaningful results typically require 3–6 months of consistent use, often in combination with other Ayurvedic therapies.
• Patience is essential — this is not a quick-fix medication but a tissue-level regenerative therapy.

Nayanamritam Kuzhambu vs. Other Ayurvedic Eye Remedies

This comparative analysis is something no competitor has published, yet it's one of the most practical questions patients ask.

When to choose Nayanamritam Kuzhambu over Elaneer Kuzhambu: Nayanamritam is preferred for degenerative and chronic conditions affecting the optic nerve and retina. Elaneer Kuzhambu, with its coconut-water base, is more cooling and better suited for acute inflammatory conditions, chemical eye injuries, and Pitta-dominant eye diseases with redness and burning. When to choose Triphala Ghritam instead: For patients who cannot tolerate topical eye drops, or as a complementary oral therapy alongside Nayanamritam Kuzhambu for comprehensive eye nourishment.

Integration with Ayurvedic Therapies

Netra Tarpana and Nasya

• Nayanamritam Kuzhambu is most effective when integrated into a broader Ayurvedic eye care protocol.
• Netra Tarpana — a procedure where medicated ghee (typically Triphala Ghritam or Jeevantyadi Ghritam) is retained over the eyes within a dough ring — provides deep nourishment to the ocular tissues. When combined with Nayanamritam Kuzhambu, Netra Tarpana addresses the nutritional aspect while Kuzhambu handles the therapeutic/medicinal aspect.

Nasya (nasal administration of medicated oils like Anu Taila) clears the Shringataka Marma pathways and enhances the efficacy of eye treatments by decongesting the paranasal sinuses and improving blood supply to the optic region.

Panchakarma Protocols

In clinical Ayurvedic practice, serious eye conditions are often treated within a structured Panchakarma framework:

1. Snehana and Swedana (oleation and sudation) as preparatory procedures
2. Virechana (therapeutic purgation) to eliminate excess Pitta systemically
3. Nasya to clear upper body channels
4. Netra Kriyakalpa — including Seka, Aschyotana, Anjana, and Tarpana procedures
5. Nayanamritam Kuzhambu as maintenance therapy post-Panchakarma

Yoga and Pranayama for Eye Health

Specific yogic practices that complement Nayanamritam Kuzhambu therapy include:

• Trataka (concentrated gazing at a candle flame) — strengthens the ciliary muscles and improves concentration
• Palming — rubbing hands together and placing warm palms over closed eyes to relax ocular muscles
• Eye rotation exercises — systematic clockwise and counterclockwise movements
• Anulom Vilom Pranayama — alternate nostril breathing that balances Ida and Pingala nadis, improving blood flow to the optic region

Side Effects, Precautions and Contraindications

Common Side Effects

• Mild burning or stinging sensation (very common, self-limiting)
• Temporary blurred vision for 10–15 minutes
• Excessive tearing
• Yellowish staining around the periorbital skin

These are generally transient and diminish with regular use.

Who Should Avoid This Product?

This is an area where existing resources are woefully incomplete.

Based on classical guidelines and clinical practice:

• Known allergy to any ingredient, particularly bee products (honey base)
• Contact lens wearers should remove lenses at least 30 minutes before application and wait at least 1 hour before reinserting
• Post-surgical patients (post cataract surgery, LASIK, or other ocular procedures) should not use without explicit clearance from both their ophthalmologist and Ayurvedic physician
• Active corneal ulcers or open eye wounds — the formulation may exacerbate the condition
• Children under 12 years — safety data is limited; use only under strict medical supervision with adjusted dosage

Is Nayanamritam Kuzhambu Safe for Children?

For children above 12, some practitioners prescribe a reduced dose of 1 drop per eye under close supervision. For younger children, milder formulations like diluted Triphala eye wash are generally preferred. There is insufficient clinical data to establish pediatric safety profiles for Nayanamritam Kuzhambu specifically.

Can Nayanamritam Kuzhambu Be Taken with Other Medications?

If you are using allopathic eye drops (such as timolol for glaucoma or artificial tears), maintain a gap of at least 30–45 minutes between applications. Never mix Ayurvedic and allopathic eye drops simultaneously. Inform both your ophthalmologist and Ayurvedic practitioner about all medications you're using.

Systemic medications (oral tablets) generally do not interfere, but patients on blood thinners or immunosuppressants should disclose this to their Ayurvedic physician.

Pregnancy and Nursing

There is no established safety data for use during pregnancy or lactation. Most Ayurvedic practitioners err on the side of caution and avoid prescribing Nayanamritam Kuzhambu during pregnancy, particularly in the first trimester. Nursing mothers should consult their physician before use, though topical ocular application generally results in minimal systemic absorption.

Scientific Evidence and Research

Available Studies and Clinical Observations

Let's be transparent: there are no large-scale randomized controlled trials (RCTs) specifically on Nayanamritam Kuzhambu as a whole formulation. This is a common reality for classical Ayurvedic preparations, largely due to funding constraints and the complexity of studying multi-ingredient formulations.

However, several relevant studies exist on individual ingredients and related formulations:

• A 2016 pilot study published in the Journal of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine demonstrated that Kriyakalpa procedures (including Kuzhambu applications) showed statistically significant improvement in visual acuity in patients with refractive errors (n=30, p<0.05).
• A 2019 observational study at the Government Ayurveda College, Thiruvananthapuram, documented improvement in optic disc pallor and visual field parameters in 18 patients with optic atrophy treated with a protocol that included Nayanamritam Kuzhambu alongside Netra Tarpana and Nasya.
• Individual ingredient research (as cited in the Ingredients section above) provides a pharmacological rationale for the formulation's claimed benefits.

Pharmacological Properties of Key Ingredients

The combined pharmacological profile of Nayanamritam Kuzhambu's ingredients includes:

• Antioxidant activity — protecting retinal cells from oxidative stress (Jyotishmati, Haridra)
• Anti-inflammatory action — reducing uveal and retinal inflammation (Haridra, Durva, Nimba)
• Neuroprotective effects — supporting optic nerve fiber integrity (Jyotishmati, Daruharidra)
• Antimicrobial properties — preventing secondary ocular infections (Nimba, Tuttha, Madhu)
• IOP-modulating potential — improving aqueous humor dynamics (needs further research)

Storage, Shelf Life and Where to Buy

Storage Conditions

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight. Temperature should ideally be maintained between 15–30°C. Do not refrigerate unless specifically instructed by the manufacturer, as extreme cold can alter the consistency of honey-based preparations. Always keep the container tightly sealed after use to prevent contamination and moisture ingress.

Shelf Life

The typical shelf life is 3 years from the date of manufacture when stored properly (as per Kottakkal AVS product labeling). However, once opened, it is advisable to use the product within 6 months and discard if any change in colour, odour, or consistency is noticed.

Where Can I Purchase Authentic Nayanamritam Kuzhambu?

Authentic product can be purchased from:

• Kottakkal Arya Vaidya Sala's official online store (shop.aryavaidyasala.com)
• Authorized Ayurvedic pharmacies and hospital dispensaries
• Reputable online platforms such as eayur.com, nirogstreet.com, and Amazon.in (verify seller authenticity)
• Kottakkal branch pharmacies across India

Pricing: Nayanamritam Kuzhambu 10 ml from Kottakkal AVS is typically priced between ₹75–₹120, though prices may vary by retailer.

Prescription Requirements and Legal Status

In India, Nayanamritam Kuzhambu is classified as a Schedule E-1 Ayurvedic medicine that should be dispensed under the supervision of a registered Ayurvedic practitioner. It is not an over-the-counter product in the strictest regulatory sense, though enforcement varies. For international buyers, Ayurvedic medicines may face customs restrictions in certain countries (particularly the EU and Australia) where they can be classified as unregistered medicines rather than dietary supplements.

Differences Between Manufacturers

All three manufacturers produce quality products. The key difference lies in raw material sourcing, harvesting seasons, and minor processing variations that can subtly affect potency.

Nayanamritam Varti (Related Formulation)

Composition and Difference from Kuzhambu

Nayanamritam Varti is a related formulation from the same classical source but in a solid form — essentially a medicated stick or rod (Varti / Varthi). The herbal composition is similar to the Kuzhambu, but the Varti form is prepared by drying the paste into sticks that are then rubbed with water or rose water before application.

The key difference is the mode of application: Varti is applied as a paste along the inner eyelid margin (Anjana application), while Kuzhambu is instilled as drops. Varti provides a more prolonged contact time with the conjunctival tissue but can be less comfortable for patients.

Indications and Usage

Nayanamritam Varti is indicated for similar conditions but is sometimes preferred for:

• Chronic conjunctivitis with discharge
• Corneal opacities (where prolonged medication contact is beneficial)
• Pterygium in early stages

The Varti form is less commonly used today due to the convenience of the liquid Kuzhambu form, but some traditional practitioners still prefer it for specific conditions.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the difference between Nayanamritam Kuzhambu and Netramritam eye drops?

Netramritam is a different, typically milder formulation intended more for general eye care and minor irritation. Nayanamritam Kuzhambu is a stronger therapeutic preparation meant for diagnosed eye diseases. They are not interchangeable.

Can I use Nayanamritam Kuzhambu for dry eyes?

While it is not primarily indicated for dry eyes, some patients report symptomatic improvement due to the honey base providing lubrication and the herbs reducing underlying inflammation. For pure dry eye syndrome, Elaneer Kuzhambu or castor oil-based drops may be more appropriate.

What is Dhanwantharam Kuzhambu used for?

Dhanwantharam Kuzhambu is a different Kuzhambu preparation used primarily for neurological conditions, pain management, and post-partum care — not for eye diseases. The name similarity sometimes causes confusion.

Is Elaneer Kuzhambu good for eyes?

Yes, Elaneer Kuzhambu is an excellent Ayurvedic eye formulation, but it serves different purposes. It's cooling, predominantly Pitta-pacifying, and preferred for inflammatory and acute eye conditions. Nayanamritam Kuzhambu is better suited for degenerative, chronic conditions.

Can I use this formulation daily for preventive eye care?

This is a therapeutic medicine, not a daily wellness supplement. Preventive eye care in Ayurveda is better served by practices like Triphala eye wash, Netra Tarpana with plain ghee, and dietary modifications. Use Nayanamritam Kuzhambu only when prescribed for a specific condition.

Does Nayanamritam Kuzhambu cure cataracts completely?

There is anecdotal evidence from clinical practice that early-stage cataracts (Kacha stage in Ayurveda) may show improvement. However, mature cataracts typically require surgical intervention. Ayurvedic treatment is most effective in early stages and as a post-operative supportive therapy.

Final Thoughts

• Nayanamritam Kuzhambu represents one of the most sophisticated ophthalmic preparations in the Ayurvedic pharmacopoeia.
• Its multi-targeted mechanism of action — combining anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, antimicrobial, and tissue-nourishing properties — makes it uniquely suited for complex degenerative eye conditions where modern medicine often has limited options beyond managing symptoms.

That said, it is not a magic cure. The best outcomes are achieved when Nayanamritam Kuzhambu is used as part of a comprehensive treatment plan that includes proper diagnosis, dietary modifications (Pathya), lifestyle adjustments, complementary Panchakarma therapies, and regular monitoring by both an Ayurvedic physician and a qualified ophthalmologist.

If you're considering this formulation, consult a registered Ayurvedic practitioner who can evaluate your specific condition, determine the appropriate dosage and treatment duration, and monitor your progress. For those in India, Kottakkal Arya Vaidya Sala's outpatient clinics offer specialized ophthalmic consultations that can include Nayanamritam Kuzhambu as part of a tailored treatment protocol.

Disclaimer: This article is for informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Always consult a qualified Ayurvedic physician or ophthalmologist before starting any new treatment. The information presented here is based on classical Ayurvedic texts, available research, and documented clinical practice. References:

• Sahasrayogam — Netra Rogadhikara section (traditional Ayurvedic text, Kerala tradition)
• Vagbhata, Ashtanga Hridayam — Uttarasthana, Chapters 13–19 (Netra Roga Chikitsa)
• Parasuraman S, et al. "Polyherbal formulation: Concept of Ayurveda." Pharmacognosy Reviews, 2014; 8(16): 73-80.
• Godatwar PK, et al. "A pilot study on Kriyakalpa procedures in refractive errors." J Ayurveda Integr Med, 2016.
• Nalini K, et al. "Effect of Celastrus paniculatus on learning and memory." J Ethnopharmacol, 2014.
• Davis SC, et al. "Honey: a potent agent for wound healing?" J Wound Ostomy Continence Nurs, 2005; 32(4).

Scientific Sources

1. Revisiting the tridosha paradigm of Ayurveda — Krishna GL, 2025, Indian journal of medical ethics
2. Ayurveda for diabetes mellitus: a review of the biomedical literature — Elder C, 2004, Alternative therapies in health and medicine
3. Of odysseys and miracles: A narrative approach on therapeutic mobilities for ayurveda treatment — Kaspar H et al., 2023, Social science & medicine (1982)
4. Brahmi (Bacopa monnieri): An ayurvedic herb against the Alzheimer's disease — Dubey T et al., 2019, Archives of biochemistry and biophysics
5. Some thoughts on the undergraduate Ayurveda curriculum — Chandra S, 2023, Indian journal of medical ethics
6. Antioxidant approach to disease management and the role of 'Rasayana' herbs of Ayurveda — Govindarajan R et al., 2005, Journal of ethnopharmacology
7. Efficacy and Safety of Ayurveda interventions in the management of conjunctivitis: A systematic review and meta-analysis — V KK et al., 2022, Complementary therapies in clinical practice
8. Sleep medicine in ayurveda — Kumar VM et al., 2016, Sleep medicine reviews
9. Arsenic and Ayurveda — Prakash VB, 1994, Leukemia & lymphoma
10. Ayurveda.Caraka Samhita (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1107620/) — Yano M, 1975, Nihon rinsho. Japanese journal of clinical medicine
11. Ayurveda for the treatment of obesity(https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27546800/) — Korossy A et al., 2016, Orvosi hetilap
12. The Microbiome in Health and Disease from the Perspective of Modern Medicine and Ayurveda — Wallace RK, 2020, Medicina (Kaunas, Lithuania)
13. Ayurveda and COVID-19: Where psychoneuroimmunology and the meaning response meet — Rajkumar RP, 2020, Brain, behavior, and immunity
14. Estimation of cancer risk due to exposure to lead contamination in Thai Ayurveda products — Joob B et al., 2015, Indian journal of cancer
15. Integrating modern dermatology and Ayurveda in the treatment of vitiligo and lymphedema in India — Narahari SR et al., 2011, International journal of dermatology
16. The flip side of Ayurveda — Thatte UM et al., 1993, Journal of postgraduate medicine
17. Ayurveda — Padma TV, 2005, Nature
18. A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Ayurvedic Herbal Preparations for Hypercholesterolemia — Gyawali D et al., 2021, Medicina (Kaunas, Lithuania)
19. A biostatistical approach to ayurveda: quantifying the tridosha — Joshi RR, 2004, Journal of alternative and complementary medicine (New York, N.Y.)
20. Akarnan: The Stethoscope and Making of Modern Ayurveda, Bengal, c. 1894-1952 — Mukharji PB, 2019, Technology and culture